16.1

Learning Overview
toc P1 and P2 are most effectively studied side by side. 16.1 first introduces you to personality definitions and theories. Personality is investigated through a television programme, 'Faking it'. Can a chess playing computer geek called Maximillion Devereaux change his personality and become a football manager? Can he fake it? Motivation is presented from the perspective of a range of football players, from young players to SKY Masters verterans, from recreational Sunday League to the Premierships elite.


 * P1 describe** personality and how it affects sports performance.

//‘Personality is like a fingerprint. It emphasizes how we are unique and are different from each other.’// Review these personality definitions and underline the key words in each. Personality Defined: //‘the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to the environment’ (Allport, 1937). ‘the sum total of an individual’s characteristics which make him unique’ (Hollander, 1971). ‘a relatively enduring pattern of perceiving and relating to self, others, and the environment.’// **Personality in lay-mans terms?**
 * Personality is the deeply fixed, consistent, distinctive and characteristic patterns of behaviour.
 * Personality defines our own style of interacting with the physical and social environment.
 * Personality is the tendency to behave in a certain way under different circumstances and across time.
 * Personality signifies the uniqueness of a person, and the special characteristics that set apart that person from others.

Write your own __definition__ of personality, include the words __dynamic, organisation, unique, relatively enduring__ and __environment__.

Personality is

Trait Theories
Eysenck suggested that we all have underlying characteristics or **traits** which determine our behaviour and make it possible to predict our behaviour under different circumstances. Eysenck argued that personality fell into **TWO** main dimensions.

The first dimension is;


 * Extrovert:** Outgoing, confident, enjoys physical activity, becomes bored easily.
 * Introvert:** Prefers calm and quiet, better at tasks requiring concentration.

Consider the players in your team or a team. Place them along the extrovert - introvert continuum.

Extroverts athletes are most likely to...... Introverts athletes are are most likely to......

Consider the players in your team or a team. Place them along the extrovert - introvert continuum.

The second dimension is;


 * Neurotic (unstable)** – associated with emotions and is characterised by a tendency to worry, be anxious and unstable.
 * Stable** – associated with being content, predictable and more reliable.

Consider the players in your team or a team. Place them along the neurotic - introverts continuum.

Neurotic athletes are most likely to...... An example of unstable / neurotic behaviour would be [|Mike Tyson's infamous attack on Holyfield.]


 * media type="youtube" key="ctjWtmT52_U" height="250" width="320" || media type="youtube" key="fWB2ofa8NZU" height="250" width="320" ||
 * media type="youtube" key="3wX6VQ0KJJo" height="250" width="320" || media type="youtube" key="rIH5LivGRxQ" height="250" width="320" ||

Do you have better examples? Post the discussion forum or add to the list. [|Roy Keane's tackle on Alf Inge Haaland] [|John Macenron challenges a line call.]

Introverts athletes are are most likely to......

The **TWO** dimensions then come together to identify **FOUR** basic personality types.


 * Applying Trait Approaches to Personality**

Add any further examples you find here.

//‘He has a flashpoint in his temperament that explodes at any given time. Unfortunately, neither he nor us knows when that is going to happen,’ Sam Allardyce on El Hadji Diouf.//

Q Can you identify **TWO** athletes who fit the **FOUR** basic personality types? Write the names of the athletes directly onto Eysenck Personality Inventory or EPI. (An EPI is Worksheet 16.1.1)


 * Remember you can have mixed personality types, these personalities fall near the centre of the EPI.**

Q How would you classify your team mates? Q Which personality category was easiest to fill? Why do you think that was the case? Q Which category was most difficult to complete? Again, Why do you think that was the case?

Try out an online personality test at [|personality test.]

Social Learning Theory
//'The experiences of life change us, and they do so in ways that are lawful and predictable.' (Carver & Scheier)//

Social learning theory states that our personalities are learnt rather than genetically predetermined. The situation is an important influence in this approach, which may account for sports performers’ changes in behaviour rather than the performer showing stable traits. According to this theory, our behaviour is influenced by that of others and that we often imitate or copy the behaviour of people we would most like to emulate.

There are **TWO** main mechanism of learning

We observe and imitate the behaviour of significant others in our lives. At first this is our parents and siblings, as we get older our friends, teachers, coaches and role models. As adults, it may be people (athletes) we aspire to be?
 * Modeling**

Q Who might these footballers model themselves on?


 * U9 Academy football? || Friday night 5 A-side team player? || Full time Academy Scholar or College Player? ||

This means that when behaviour is rewarded positively it is more likely that it will be repeated. Also, that when behaviour is negatively rewarded it is less likely to be repeated. As a result our personality is modelled.
 * Social reinforcement**

Q Suggest **THREE** ways in which a coach may reinforce or punish behaviour? Links here with the Unit Sports Coaching.

Situational Approach
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Interactional Approach
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**Type A Type B**
The **Type B** personality is more laid back, taking things as they come, is seen not being as motivated or goal driven as the Type A personality. Type B’s probably deal better with stress and live a more peaceful life.

The **Type A** personality is someone who is characterized by doing many things, being very goal oriented, being very motivated, and having several things going at one time. How would [|Roy Keane] describe himself?

[|Take a Type AB test here.]


 * **Type B** || **Type A** ||
 * Less competitive || Highly competitive ||
 * More relaxed || Achievement orientated ||
 * Delegate work easily || Eat fast, walk fast, talk fast ||
 * Take time to complete their tasks || Aggressive, restless and impatient ||
 * Calm, laid back and patient || Find it difficult to delegate or not be in control ||
 * Experience low levels of stress || Experience high levels of stress ||

There are some trade-offs to both personality types. It is hard to perform well without some of the drive of the Type A, but it is also difficult to perform well if you can’t handle stress well like Type B. In sport we see both personality types being equally successful but which sports suit which personalities?


 * Remember, as with the EPI, you can have mixed personality types.**

NEW RESEARCH Now, at Temple University, researchers investigating what they call the Type T personality, with ‘T’ representing ‘thrill seeking.’ The researchers have looked at people who are bungee jumpers, sky divers, hang gliders, stunt men, all people whose very life involves seeking thrills - often life and death type thrills.
 * Type T Personalities**

You must be goal driven and highly motivated, but you also must be able to cope with stress and relax. You must be driven by adrenaline, the rush and the excitement of winning, or even the chance of dying. Thrill seekers know they will get hurt sometimes, but that is part of what they like about the activity in which they are participating. The great athletes all fit into this category. They are confident in their abilities, and they are not afraid to tell you that they are very good. They expect to win.

Case Study 16.1.1
Watch the introduction to [|Faking It].

media type="custom" key="25120" [|Faking it Channel 4]

What does a chess playing computer geek called Maximillion Devereaux have to tell you about becoming a football manager and what can we learn from his experience? What can we learn about personality?

Q Can Wally Downes, Manager of Brentford FC, change Maximillion’s personality? Will Maximillion convince the judges?

[|Watch the result of Faking It.]

Case Study 16.1.2
Ice-berg Profiles - Athletes and Nonathletes' Personality Profiles

No specific personality profile has been found that consistently discriminates athletes from nonathletes. Few personality differences are evident between male and female athletes, particularly at the elite level, however Morgan's (1972) did conclude that successful athletes exhibit **greater positive mental health** than less successful (or unsuccessful) athletes.

Successful athletes tend to be significantly more vigorous, have more tension and depression, similar anger but lower fatigue and confusion, a combination known as the **iceberg profile**.

Compared with nonathletes, top level x-county skiers displayed:
 * Iceberg Profile of Elite XC Skiers**
 * high levels of tension
 * lower level of depression
 * about equal levels of anger
 * significantly higher vigor
 * less fatigue and confusion

In contrast, less successful elite athletes have a flat profile, hence, some personality differences appear to distinguish athletes and non-athletes, but these specific differences can not yet be considered definitive.

Q Is this true of your sport?

**Case Study 16.1.2**
Which came first sport or the athlete? Introvert or extrovert, stable or unstable, Type A or Type B? What draws people to sport, more importantly, what draws certain personalities to each sport? Which aspects of Max’s personality drew him towards internet chess and not the social, team environment of football or rugby (or netball)?

Using the EPI, Morgan and Costill (1972) found that long distance runners were mainly introverted and Eysenck et al. (1982) found that extroverts were well represented in sports such as football. Can you **explain** why?


 * Have you contributed to the Unit 16.1 discussions?**

16.1 Learning Support
Make sure you understand personality before trying to explain personality theories. Use examples from a range of sports and sporting examples to help you define the differnt personality types.
 * Student Tips**

[|16.1]
 * **Hard Copy** |||| **Application of resource.** ||
 * BTEC Sport Science textbook. |||| Try an online test, it helps show you how personalities are classified. ||
 * Channel 4s Faking It. |||| An excellent resources that shows the relatively enduring nature of personality. ||


 * P2 describe** motivation and how it affects sports performance

//‘Most managers have always recognised that players have different personalities and temperaments and that it is asking for trouble to try and motivate them all in the same way, but this is particularly true now. It can take time for a manager to really get to know his players and mistakes are inevitable,’ Wally Downes, Manager of Brentford FC.//

Q What does the quote tell us about motivation?

//‘The internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse and direct behaviour,’ (Sage, 1977).

‘A drive to fulfil a need,’ (Gill, 1986).

‘The driving force within that causes an individual to act in order to achieve a specific goal.’

‘The process that energizes and/or maintains a behaviour.’

‘The forces either within or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm and commitment to pursue a certain course of action.’//

Q Identify the key words that are repeated in these definitions? Use these key words and your own understanding to write your definition of motivation.

Motivation is

**Types of Motivation**
media type="file" key="Braveheart.mp3" //‘I used to play in my little plastic shoes. We would muck around. We were five, six, seven years old, so just played for the fun of it, because from as young as I can remember, I have loved to kick a ball around.’ Patrick Vieira//

Review the following **THREE** case studies. Using the table identify and prioritise what motivates different sports people? Post-it notes might be handy here to help rank the motivations.

Use the table to prioritise their motivations.


 * With a full trophy cabinet and a bulging bank balance, what motivates the superstar athlete?
 * What motivates a Sunday league footballer on a cold, wet Sunday morning in February to play football?
 * A former legend playing in a testimonial tournament?
 * What are the key motivations for a keen, young U9 tennis player?

So what really motivates professional footballer? Ask [|Steve Harper].
 * Success and achievement || Personnal growth and knowledge || Affiliation or group membership ||
 * Aggression || Excellence || Power ||
 * Revenge || Avoiding failure || Status ||
 * Money || Control || Independence ||
 * Satisfaction || Skill development || Fun ||
 * Praise from the coach || Sponsorship || Recognition ||
 * Stress or Excitement || Competition || Friends ||
 * Improvement || To be the best || Any motivations missing? ||

These motivations can then be classified as either **intrinsic** or **extrinsic** motivation.
 * Intrinsic or Extrinsic Motivation?**


 * Intrinsic motivation** is the motivation to engage in a sport or exercise for its own sake and the achievement of the 'internal rewards.’

Suggest **THREE** intrinsic motivations for an athlete?


 * Extrinsic motivation** is the motivation to gain external rewards and can fall into one of **TWO** categories, **tangible** and **intangible**.


 * Tangible** rewards – those you can touch / see

Examples?


 * Intangible** rewards - those you can not touch / see

Examples?

Go back to the motivations table, which __types__ of motivations predominant for each type of athlete?

Extrinsic motivation can also come from others, for an external source such as a team captain or team manager. [|Barry Fry] motivational half time rant or Tony D'Amato (Al Pacino) prematch speech in [|'Any Given Sunday].'

Take a look at the quotes and decided whether they are tangible or intangible? If you find more, please add them to the list.

//‘The players, too, looked forward to this fixture because it was Stan’s habit to put £2,000 in readies on the dressing room table as an incentive for victory, to be shared among the squad. He would shuffle the money like a croupier with a pack of card…’ Barry Fry on Barnet Chairman Stan Flashman.//

//‘The relationship I have with the chairman is based on honesty and loyalty and means a great deal to me.’ Stuart Pearce, Manager of Manchester City FC.//

//'////I have a special feeling for this club and the supporters. The reception they give me every week is unbelievable and I still find it embarrassing.’ Martin Allen.//

//‘Sharing a passion with the players is what motivates me,’ Arsene Wenger.//

//'I am here to win Championships. We all want to win, we all want a full trophy cabinet,' Andrei Shevchenko.//

//‘You feel like you are going to go through a brick wall for him. You want to do things beyond the normal for Bobby Robson,’ Terry Butcher.//

Tough question? Gladiator - Maximus Decimus Meridius, extrinsically and intrinsically motivated? media type="file" key="Gladiator - Maximus Decimus Meridius.mp3"

Case Study 16.2.1

 * David Beckhams Move the U$A.**

//'David Beckham insists his move to LA Galaxy is not financially driven. The 31-year-old will earn a reported £128m over five years after agreeing to leave Real Madrid for the Major League Soccer side at the end of the season. The deal means Beckham will be earning 500 times more each week than most of his team-mates at Los Angeles. But he said: 'I didn't want to go there at 34 years old and for people to say he's only going for the money. It's not what I'm going out there to do. I want to take soccer in the US to another level. I think it can go higher in America than anyone can believe,' www.bbc.co.uk [|article].//

Join us in the discussion room. Do you believe him?

Effective Motivation
Although it was once thought that high intrinsic motivation combined with high external rewards resulted in the optimal level of motivation, a number of studies (Deci, 1971) have shown that, under certain conditions, e**xtrinsic rewards can act to reduce levels of intrinsic motivation.** If this is true, then it is unsurprising that some players may not invest 100% effort in training or actual performance.

Q Why might an over emphasis on __extrinsic__ __rewards__ have a __negative__ effect on performance?

Attribution Theory
Attribution Theory examines the way in which individuals evaluate their success or failure in sporting performance. It describes the processes of explaining performance outcomes and the behavioral and emotional repercussions of these explanations for future performances. Our cognitive perceptions of are thought to be based on **THREE** factors;


 * Stability factors influence expectation of future success;
 * Causality factors influence emotional responses;
 * Control factors influence levels of motivation.

Attirbution Theory clearly links to motivation as intrinsically motivated athletes feel that they are in control whereas extrinsically motivated athletes feel less control.

Case study 16.2.2
What does Happy Gilmore have to tell us about Motivation?

Watch the Adam Sandler film 'Happy Gilmore' - can you identify [|Happy Gilmore's motivations] to become a pro golfer? I am pretty sure it was not the dress code! Happy Gilmore also has strong likes with stress, anxiety and arousal.

//'If I saw myself dressed like that, I'd have to kick my own ass.' Happy Gilmore.//

16.2 Learning Support

 * **Hard Copy** || **Application of resource.** ||
 * Happy Gilmore || The film shows a range of motivations. ||
 * [|Horizon - The England Patient] || The website has an overview of the programme and the programmes transcripts. ||


 * M1 **explain** the effects of personality and motivation on sports performance ||

Discussion
I have set up a discussion for you to generate the evidence for M1. Select the discussion tab. Consider the questions posted. Respond to your class mates comments.

Q Why do some athletes get provoked by the crowd abuse while others ignore it, yet some get motivated by it? Q Why do some players get frustrated by refereeing while others remain focused? Q Why do we choose the sports we do?

Try and find __different__ responses by professional athletes to __similar__ incidents in preparation for the discussion. Apply your knowledge of personality to **explain** why the athletes responded differently. **Make sure that you include appropriate personality terminology.**

M1 16.1 Contribute to the [|Talk Sport online forum]. Read about [|David Bentley] and his decision to withdraw from the England Squad [|here]. Mind map your own ideas here at [|bubbl.us.] Our thanks to Jackie Swain for recording the meeting key points.

Consider Achievement Motivation and the Need to Achieve and the Need to Avoid Failure. [|16.1]
 * D1 **evaluate** the effects of personality and motivation on sports performance ||

media type="custom" key="213113" Here is a learning task. Review the discussion, highlighting the work using the traffic light system. Green as correct, amber as on the right lines but missing something (maybe terminology, accuracy) and red, incorrect.

Goal Setting Mini Workbook for Thursday 11th.